The motivation theories used by management

The motivation theories used by management This chapter provides a brief outline of motivation, types of motivation, major motivation theories and leadership theories on increasing employee motivation. Lastly this chapter identifies the impact of employee motivation on the productivity of the company. 2.2 Motivation The level of performance of employees relies not only on their actual skills but also on the level of motivation each person exhibits (Burney et al., 2007). Motivation is an inner drive or an external inducement to behave in some particular way, typically a way that will lead to rewards (Dessler,1978). Over-achieving, talented employees are the driving force of all firms so it is essential that organizations strive to motivate and hold on to the best employees (Harrington, 2003). The success of any business depends largely on the motivation of the employees.  Every person has their own set of motivations and personal incentives to work hard or not as the case may be. Some are motivated by recognition while others are motivated by cash incentives. Motivation can be internal or external. Deadlines are an example of external motivation. The fear of losing a contract or of not finishing a job you started is an example of internal motivation. Both internal and external motivation can be equally powerful. Financial Motivation is money, incentives, bonus, commission, fame and recognition which are External and Monetary benefits or Non-Financial Motivators like pride, sense of achievement, responsibility, belief, challenge and interesting job, Respect which are Internal. Perhaps the most significant impact of increased employee motivation is that of increased productivity. This is a central aim when adopting an incentive program. If you can increase employee motivation, productivity will follow and with that the inevitable increased bottom line. Table 1 Four most powerful types of motivation Type of Motivation Description Intrinsic motivation Satisfaction in the work itself (pleasure, stimulation, learning etc) Extrinsic motivation Rewards for doing the work (money, promotion, perks etc) Personal motivation Individual values (a love of knowledge, power, security, self-expression etc) Interpersonal motivation The influence of other people (competition, collaboration, commitments etc) Human beings are multifaceted creatures, and we are typically motivated by a mixture of all four elements. This diagram can help make sense of this complexity The types of motivation combine to produce four key areas to focus on when trying to motivate people. For example, prior to taking a work, employee will most likely to have a minimum anticipation in terms of pay and opportunities for career progress (personal rewards). You will also want to be certain that it offers you an opportunity to use your skills, learn and stretch yourself in pursuit of a meaningful challenge (personal satisfaction). Probability are you will also want to be given due recognition for your involvement (public recognition). And given how long you are going to spend in the group of your co-workers, you will probably want them to be interesting and enjoyable company (social interaction). Combining different forms of motivation will have the biggest impact on performance. Taking a more balanced approach to motivation will also help you develop better relationships with everyone on your team. How to Motivate People During a Recession Deci and Ryan (2000) conducted and replicated an experiment that showed the negative impact of monetary rewards on intrinsic motivation and performance. A group of college students were asked to work on an interesting puzzle. Some were paid and some were not paid for the work. The students that were not being paid worked longer on the puzzle and found it more interesting than the students being paid. When the study was brought into a workplace setting, employees felt that their behavior was being controlled in a dehumanizing and alienating manner by the rewards. It was discovered that rewards would seriously decrease an employees motivation to ever perform the task being rewarded, or one similar to it, any time in the future. Another observation of the study was that employees would expect a reward every time the task was to be completed if the reward was offered at one time. Employees would require the reward in order to perform the job and would probably expect the reward to increase in amount. If the rewards were not increased or if they were taken away they actually served as negative reinforcement. 2.2 Major Theories of Motivation Motivation is not only in a single direction i.e. downwards. In the present scenario, where the workforce is more informed, more aware, more educated and goal oriented, the role of motivation has left the boundaries of the hierarchy of management. The Fig below shows the major theories of motivation that can be applied in the working environment as well on the employees to see the impact of motivation on the organization as a whole. Fig shows Major theories of Motivation 2.2.1 Need Approaches Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Fig Shows Maslows Hierarchy of Needs If motivation is driven by the existence of unsatisfied needs, then it is worthwhile for a manager to understand which needs are the more important for individual employees. http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/maslow/ By applying Maslows theory of motivation, modern leaders and managers find way of employee motivation for the purpose of employee and workforce management. The basis of Maslows theory of motivation is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be addressed. As per the teachings of Abraham Maslow, there are general needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) which have to be fulfilled before a person is able to act unselfishly. These needs were dubbed deficiency needs. While a person is motivated to fulfill these basal desires, they continue to move toward growth, and eventually self-actualization. http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Hierarchy_of_Needs.asp As a result, for adequate workplace  motivation, it is important that  leadership understands which needs are active for individual employee motivation. In this regard, Abraham Maslows model indicates that basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. As depicted in this hierarchical diagram, sometimes called Maslows Needs Pyramid or Maslows Needs Triangle, when a need is satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Hierarchy_of_Needs.asp Table 2 shows Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Needs Example Biological and Physiological needs Air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc Safety needs Protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. Belongingness and Love needs Work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. Esteem needs Self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc Self-Actualization needs Realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Source: http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm Alderfers ERG Theory Fig: Clayton Alderfers ERG Theory Needs Source:http://www.envisionsoftware.com/es_img/Alderfer_ERG_Theory.gif If the ERG theory holds, then unlike with Maslows theory, managers must recognize that an employee has multiple needs to satisfy simultaneously. Furthermore, if growth opportunities are not provided to employees, they may regress to relatedness needs. If the manager is able to recognize this situation, then steps can be taken to concentrate on relatedness needs until the subordinate is able to pursue growth again. http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/erg/ Herzbergs Two Factor Theory Fig: Hygiene and Motivation Factors Source:http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/figures/1472-6920-9-49-1.jpg The psychologist Fredrick Herzberg asked the questions from employees in the year 1950s and 60s for understanding employee satisfaction. He set out to determine the effect of attitude on motivation, by asking people to describe the circumstances where they felt really good, and really bad, about their jobs. What he found was that people who felt good about their jobs gave very different responses from the people who felt bad. Herzbergs findings revealed that certain characteristics of a job are consistently related to job satisfaction, while different factors are associated with job dissatisfaction shown in Fig? The conclusion he drew is that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposites. The opposite of Satisfaction is No Satisfaction. The opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction To apply Herzbergs theory, managers need to adopt a two stage process to motivate people. Firstly, managers need eliminate the dissatisfactions the employees are experiencing and, secondly, managers need to help them find satisfaction. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_74.htm McClellands Learned Needs Theory One of McClellands most well known theories is that human motivation is dominated by three needs. McClellands theory, sometimes referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory, categorizes the needs as follows; The need for achievement The need for power The need for affiliation The importance of each of these needs will vary from one person to another. If the manager can determine the importance of each of these needs to an individual, it will help the managers to decide how to influence that individual. McClelland asserted that a persons needs are influenced by their cultural background and life experiences. He also asserted that the majority of these needs can be classified as the needs for affiliation, achievement or power. A persons motivation and effectiveness can be increased through an environment, which provides them with their ideal mix of each of the three needs. http://www.learnmanagement2.com/DavidMcClelland.htm 2.2.2 Cognitive Approach Expectancy Theory The expectancy theory says that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they have certain expectation. Individuals choose behaviors based on the outcomes they expect and the values they ascribe to those expected outcomes (Borders 2004). Vrooms Expectancy theory is based upon the following three variables which he calls Valence, Expectancy and Instrumentality valances (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006). Valence refers to the value an individual personally places on the reward or upon the expected outcome of a situation. The Valence is high if the reward available is of interest to us. When you have a higher valence you tend to have higher motivation (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006). Expectancy is the belief that your efforts will result in attainment of the desired performance. This belief is generally based on an individuals past experience, self confidence. Expectancy would be zero if an individual felt it were impossible to achieve a given performance level (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006). Instrumentality is the belief that the success of the situation is linked to the expected outcome of the situation, e.g. its gone really well, so Id expect praise. It is also the belief that if one meets the performance expectations, he or she will receive a greater reward. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006) Equity Theory/ Social Comparison Theory Source: http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm According to Equity theory the employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others (Shown in Fig). If an employee perceives her ratio to be equal to those of relevant others, a state of equity exists. In other words, she perceives that her situation is fair-that justice prevails. However, if the ratio is unequal, inequity exists and she views herself as under rewarded or over rewarded. Source: http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm Goal Setting Theory of Motivation Goal-setting theory focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and explaining why goals have these effects. Goal-setting theory is found within the field of organizational behavior; however, it can be applied to any general area where goals may be achieved. http://www.ehow.com/about_5382265_goalsetting-theory-motivation.html Source: http://faculty.washington.edu/janegf/goalsetting.html In order to direct ourselves we set ourselves goals that are: Clear (not vague) and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to do. Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored. Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail. If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or directed the goal ourselves.http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/goals.htm 2.2.3 REINFORCEMENT THEORY Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action. External environment of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to motivate the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for individuals behaviour. http://www.managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory-motivation.htm Table 3: Reinforcement schedule Apply Withhold Reward positive reinforcement (raise above baseline) negative reinforcement (raise up to baseline) Stressor punishment (bring down below baseline) extinction (stay at baseline) Source: http://motivationcentre.blogspot.com/2006/03/reinforcement-theory.html Table 4 Types of Reinforcement Types of Reinforcement Description Positive reinforcement This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and required behavior. Ex. You make a sale, you get a commission. You do a good job; you get a bonus a promotion. Negative reinforcement This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative / undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing desirable / required behaviour. Extinction It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction implies lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by removing reward for that kind of behaviour. For instance if an employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel that his behaviour is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behaviour Punishment It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future. In other words, punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing undesirable behaviour. For instance Suspending an employee for breaking the organizational rules. Source: http://www.managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory-motivation.htm 2.3 Leadership Style Influencing Motivation Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people (Kurt Lewin,1939). Leadership Style influences the level of motivation of employees. Different Leaders have different style for managing the employees working under them. Fig explains the style of leadership influencing the motivation of employees. Fig: Leadership Style Vs motivation Source: http://www.motivation-tools.com/workplace/leadership_styles.htm

Interpretation of John Updikes A&P :: Literary Analysis

The first line of the story, â€Å"A&P, by John Updike, â€Å"In walks three girls in nothing but bathing suits†; (230) sets the tone for the rest of the story. The rest of the story is a description of how the main character Sammy, views not only the three girls in the bathing suits , but the rest of the women that are portrayed in the story. The main character of the story is a young guy, in the early 60s, who is working at a grocery store when these three young ladies walk in. He describes how they were scantily dressed and walking around the store, and the reactions of the others in the store, including himself, his co-workers, his manager and other customers. This story is about how a 19-year-old guy in 1961 viewed and objectified the women, young and old, entirely. The first woman Sammy has dealings with after seeing the three girls is a customer he describes as â€Å"a witch of about fifty years, with rouge on her cheekbones and no eyebrows† (230). She has become impatient with him when he cannot remember if he rang up her box of crackers, since the three younger girls distracted him. Sammy also says, â€Å"If she were born in the right time, they would have burned her over in Salem†, substantiating his characterization of her being a witch. He believes that this woman’s purpose was to trip him up and get pleasure from it. Sammy goes on to describe the three young women. The first one he refers to as the â€Å"chunky one† (230), whom he describes as having a â€Å"sweet broad soft looking can† (230), in reference to her backside. He also adds, â€Å"With two crescents of white under it where the sun never shines† (230), indicating that he is really gawking at her backside. The second, he describes as the â€Å"tall one, with black hair that hadn’t quite frizzled right, with a chin that was too long† (230) - the kind that other girls think is very â€Å"striking† (230) and â€Å"attractive† (230). The third, he described as the â€Å"queen† (230). As she pulled out her money to pay for her purchase, Sammy talked about how he slowly un-creased the bill because it was retrieved from what he described as the â€Å"nicest two scoops of vanilla he has ever seen† (230); referencing the â€Å"queens† breasts. He also describes her bathing su it being off her shoulders, and that there was â€Å"nothing between the top of her suit and the top of her head but her†; alluding to more nakedness than is already apparent.

Martin Luther King Essay

Speeches in which this is observed include â€Å"I Have A Dream† by Martin Luther King and â€Å"The Gettysburg Address† by Abraham Lincoln which have been valued and remembered throughout time as being historically influential and valued, as such, as they use the values of their time and audience to inspire, persuade and unite the public with their message. Martin Luther King electrified America with his pivotal speech, dramatically delivered from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC in 1963, sharing his dream of a new future for black and white people before more than 200,000 people.King, part of an extensive black movement, challenged the white Americans to extend genuine freedom to his people and drew on all his powers to inspire black Americans to believe in such freedom for themselves. The key message from the speech was, and is, that all people are created equal and, although not the case in America at the time, King felt it must be the case in the future which is why this text is valued still, even today. Abraham Lincoln, the American president at the time delivered his speech at the Gettysburg Cemetery during the heart of the civil war in 1863.This was to honour and dedicate the new cemetery to the soldiers who had died in the recent Battle of Gettysburg which was pivotal in the American Civil War. The quality of patriotism is seen in Lincoln's allusion to the Declaration of Independence and constant references to democratic ideals. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Martin Luther Kings’ â€Å"I have a dream†¦. † speech is one of the most memorable speech’s of all time but why? In thi s essay we’ll have a look at why it’s such an effective speech. In the speech, King especially likes to use repetition and metaphors to convey his ideas.These devices are the foundation of King’s unique and effective style. Anaphora and repetition are commonly used in Martin Luther King’s â€Å"I have a dream†¦. † speech because repeating the words and phrases helps to emphasise the pattern and increase the rhetorical effect. â€Å"I have a dream†¦ † is repeated in eight successive sentences, and is one of the most often cited examples of anaphora in modern speeches. Repetition is a good device to use to strengthen an important idea. He uses and repeats the words dream, because it is such a personal and deep commodity.The phrases he adds to the end of this representation are also very personal. This is so effectual because the target audience of this speech can see these visualizations become reality. Even now, over 30 years after his death, reading through the speech gives the reader a sense that things are not complete, and that King still has a dream. If you count the frequency of words used in King’s â€Å"I Have a Dream†, very interesting patterns emerge. The most commonly used noun is freedom, which is used twenty times in the spee ch. This makes sense, since freedom is one of the primary themes of the speech.A metaphor is a very effective way to illustrate an idea. King uses many metaphors, both large and small, to describe many different ideas. â€Å"In a sense we have come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men would be guaranteed the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is obvious†¦

Essay on America’s War on Terrorism - 2451 Words

America’s War on Terrorism The world has been changed forever since the tragic attack on September 11, 2001. An observer described the atrocity by saying, It just went bam, like a bomb went off. It was like holy hell (CNN 1). The new world will be different from what any American has known before. A new war has arisen, not against a foreign country or a major region of the world, but rather against a select group of people who have the capabilities to destroy the lives of so many. The war against terrorism which the United States is now forced to wage will not be an easily won battle. This war will not be fought solely on scattered battlefields in certain countries. It will instead permeate through every aspect of life as we†¦show more content†¦It respects less developed nations independence. In this way, the superpower becomes somewhat isolationist, because a superpower usually has the ability to be self-reliant if needs be. Indeed, it follows that if the superpower does in fact simply preside over itself, it will eventually become isolationist. A major problem with this approach is that it may cause a superpower to consume its resources, so then when it attempts to regain its authority over the rest of the world after being isolationist for so long and now having limited resources, it is no longer an intimidating force, and thus loses its superpower supremacy. The original empire of China was technologically superior to the rest of the world at that time, but it was isolationist and eventually overtaken as the rest of the world advanced (Further information located in Encarta Encyclopedia for Windows). The second approach that a superpower may believe its responsibility to be is to aid those countries that are less developed by inflicting their rule over such countries. Aiding countries can be achieved in many ways. There can be simply financial aid. 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